Untying the Knot

Re-reading Lori Gottlieb's March 2008 Atlantic article about settling -- after being reminded of it by reading Caitlin Flanagan’s recent article in the Atlantic about being reminded of female adolescence and re-reading Lisa Belkin’s October 2003 New York Times Magazine cover story about highly educated women choosing to leave their careers for the joys of motherhood -- has reminded me of yet another article: "Untying the Knot" by Melanie Thernstrom, published August 23, 2003 in the New York Times Magazine.

This article tells the sad story of the courtship, marriage, and divorce of Max and Kate to discuss marriage, divorce and love in modern times.

The truth is that most Americans do not marry for power, money and status. Nor do they marry out of social and economic necessity, as in an earlier era. They marry for love. Yet an enduring truth of our time is that marriage dissolves as often as it holds. So how is it that ordinary love ordinarily fails? If love is, as Wallace Stevens suggests, a dwelling ''in which being there together is enough,'' how does silence fall on a thousand evenings and the possibility of intimacy flicker and die? How do lovers become lonely?

It's a very sad article, but worth reading. A friend sent it to me when it was first published and I've kept it and re-read it about once a year since then.

Influencer: The Power to Change Anything

During a recent conversation with friends recently, the topic of building a business to create change in third world countries came up -- I guess the United States presidential election has led to some intense conversations about the state of the world.

Naturally, I thought of a fantastic book I read earlier this year: Influencer: The Power to Change Anything by Joseph Grenny, Kerry Patterson, David Maxfield, Ron McMillan & Al Switzler (click here to view the table of contents). Influencer was written by the authors of the best-selling books Crucial Confrontations: Tools for Resolving Broken Promises, Violated Expectations, and Bad Behavior and Crucial Conversations: Tools for Talking When Stakes are High.

I highly recommend these three books. Communication is important in all aspects of life -- personal and business relationships -- and these books provide readers the tools to become better communicators.

I'm certainly not an expert -- I still fly off the handle when people needle me, and I could still improve on my tactics for getting my points across, but I'd like to think I'm much improved.

Sadly, I read these books before I started this blog so I don't have comprehensive notes on them. Though this excerpt from the book sums up Influencer quite well:

Influencer takes you on a fascinating journey from San Francisco to Thailand where you'll see how seemingly “insignificant” people are making incredibly significant improvements in solving problems others would think impossible. You'll learn how savvy folks make changenot only achievable and sustainable, but inevitable. You'll discover why some managers have increased productivity repeatedly and significantly-while others have failed miserably.

...

In Influencer you’ll meet change geniuses who have used the principles of Influence to solve some of the world’s most profound and catastrophic problems. You’ll meet:

• One woman who has turned 14,000 thieves, prostitutes, and murderers into upstanding citizens without therapists, a professional staff, donations, grants, or guards.
• A health advocate who has nearly eradicated a debilitating disease without traditional medicines or vaccines.
• A healthcare professional who has helped save more than 120,000 lives in America’s hospitals without a medical degree.

And many others who have lost weight, saved a struggling community, improved damaged relationships, secured bottom-line results, revamped corporate culture, etc…

The stories from Influencer are heartwarming and educational. The authors teach their theory of vital behaviors (high-leverage action that will directly lead to the results you desire that are behaviors and not results and are recognizable and repeatable) and six sources of influence to effect change:

• Personal Motivation
• Personal Ability
• Social Motivation
• Social Ability
• Structural Motivation
• Structural Ability

You know, I liked this book so much that I may add it to my list of books to purchase.

Click here to visit the authors' comprehensive website for this book, where you can download a pdf excerpt of the first chapter, download a pdf of the Influencer Self-Assessment, download a pdf of the Influencer Worksheet, download a pdf of the Influencer Discussion Questions, and much more!

Founders at Work by Jessica Livingston

Don't worry about people stealing your ideas. If your ideas are any good, you'll have to ram them down people's throats.

-Howard Aiken

This was quoted by Jessica Livingston in the introduction of Founders at Work: Stories of Startup’s Early Days, which I recently read (click here to read all my posts on this book).

I found this quote both humorous and fascinating and it makes me wonder how much truth there is to it.

I would guess that with early-stage technology, which the companies featured in Founders at Work were known for, terrific life-changing ideas would easily be dismissed by critics.

But in other situations, I would guess that the inventors' and founders' fear that someone might steal their idea isn't that far off.

Another quote that got me thinking in this book was the idea that "Companies take shape based on the personality characteristics and human interaction characteristics of the founders" -- Ray Ozzie said this in Chapter Seven but the idea was echoed throughout the book. Just one chapter back, in Chapter Six, Mitchell Kapor said, "These types of companies tend to reflect the personalities and interests of their founders. Microsoft is very much cast in Bill Gates's images; and Apple, Steve Jobs; Borland, Phillippe Kahn."

I wonder how accurate this observation is.

Anyway, lots to think about after having read this book. No interest in starting a tech company, even after reading the success stories from this book.

In case you're curious, here's the Table of Contents:

Foreword ix
Acknowledgments xi
Introduction xiii

1 Max Levchin: Cofounder, PayPal 1
2 Sabeer Bhatia: Cofounder, Hotmail 17
3 Steve Wozniak: Cofounder, Apple Computer 31
4 Joe Kraus: Cofounder, Excite 61
5 Dan Bricklin: Cofounder, Software Arts 73
6 Mitchell Kapor: Cofounder, Lotus Development 89
7 Ray Ozzie: Cofounder, Iris Associates, Groove Networks 103
8 Evan Williams: Cofounder, Pyra Labs (Blogger.com) 111
9 Tim Brady: First Non-Founding Employee, Yahoo 127
10 Mike Lazaridis: Cofounder, Research In Motion 141
11 Arthur Van Hoff: Cofounder, Marimba 153
12 Paul Buchheit: Creator, Gmail 161
13 Steve Perlman: Cofounder, WebTV 173
14 Mike Ramsay: Cofounder, TiVo 191
15 Paul Graham: Cofounder, Viaweb 205
16 Joshua Schachter: Founder, del.icio.us 223
17 Mark Fletcher: Founder, ONElist, Bloglines 233
18 Craig Newmark: Founder, Craigslist 247
19 Caterina Fake: Cofounder, Flickr 257
20 Brewster Kahle: Founder, WAIS, Internet Archive, Alexa Internet 265
21 Charles Geschke: Cofounder, Adobe Systems 281
22 Ann Winblad: Cofounder, Open Systems, Hummer Winblad 297
23 David Heinmeier: Hansson Partner, 37 signals 309
24 Philip Greenspun: Cofounder, ArsDigita 317
25 Joel Spolsky: Cofounder, Fog Creek Software 345
26 Stephen Kaufer: Cofounder, TripAdvisor 361
27 James Hong: Cofounder, Hot or Not 377
28 James Currier: Founder, Tickle 387
29 Blake Ross: Creator, Firefox 395
30 Mena Trott: Cofounder, Six Apart 405
31 Bob Davis: Founder, Lycos 419
32 Ron Gruner: Cofounder Alliant Computer Systems; Founder, Shareholder.com 427

Index 447

Don't be surprised if I post about this book again. I might even buy myself a copy.

Founders at Work: Stories of Startup’s Early Days by Jessica Livingston

I've really enjoyed Jessica Livingston's Founders at Work: Stories of Startup’s Early Days -- one of many library books I borrowed last month.

This book tells the story of startups like Firefox, TiVo, WebTV, Craigslist, Hotmail, Adobe, and others through interviews with their founders or creators.

Initially, it made me think of If at First You Don’t Succeed . . . The Eight Patterns of Highly Effective Entrepreneurs by Brent Bowers (click here to read all my posts on this book) in that both books seek to shed light on what makes entrepreneurs tick.

While Livingston interviews individuals who founded or created dot-com or other technology start-ups, Bowers talks with founders of small businesses from varied fields that include jam making, cosmetics, manufacturing and more.

The main difference in the book lies in the way each author organizes his/her book. Where Bowers organizes his book into chapters based on eight traits of entrepreneurs with stories from 40+ entrepreneurs sprinkled throughout the book, Livingston spends just her two-page introduction discussing the patterns of entrepreneurs and then spends a chapter on each person with an in-depth interview.

Call me crazy, but I much prefer the way Livingston organized her book. It is easier to follow and you learn more from each individual.

And, as you know by now, I love primary sources. so I appreciated how each chapter was an interview with a founder or creator of one or more start-ups.

Here are the patterns that Livingston found for comparison to the list by Bowers:

1. Uncertainty that they were actually onto something big.
2. Determination, especially to build things that work.
3. Perseverance through uncertainty, isolation, and sometimes lack of progress.
4. Adaptability and mental flexibility to understand what users/customers want and to change and develop their original idea.
5. Empathy for users/customers.
6. Desire to change the world and to keep building things.

Livingston doesn't assert this list as a steadfast rule (where Bowers does); she merely states that these were some of her observations from interviewing the 32 entrepreneurs featured in her book.

Back to reading!

The Opposable Mind by Roger Martin: Chapters 5 - 8

As promised, here are my thoughts on Chapters Five through Eight of Roger Martin's The Opposable Mind: How Successful Leaders Win Through Integrative Thinking (click here to read all my posts on this book).

In the second half of this book, Martin mentions some of the same people from the beginning of the book and continues to write about people from a wide range of disciplines:

• Victoria Hale of the Insitute for OneWorld Health
• K V Kamath, ICICI Bank
• Meg Whitman, eBay
• Nandan Nilekani, Infosys Technologies Limited
• Ramalina Raju, Satyam Computer Services
• Bruce Mau, Bruce Mau Design
• Taddy Belcher, CIDA City Campus
• Gerry Mabin, The Mabin School

Chapter Five, Mapping the Mind, is when Martin begins to teach readers how to hone their integrative thinking skills. Martin puts forth a model of "your personal knowledge system" (which is "highly path-dependent") broken down into three parts:

• Stance: Who You Are and What You're After - further discussed in Chapter Six
• Tools: Knocking the World into Shape - further discussed in Chapter Seven
• Experiences: Where Stance and Tools Meet the World - further discussed in Chapter Eight

The example stances that Martin discusses are all varied and interesting in their own right.

Within experiences, Martin defines skills and sensitivities that are built through experience as follows:

• Sensitivities: capacity to make distinctions between conditions that are similar but not the same
• Skills: capacity to carry out an activity so as to consistently produce the destined result

Chapter Six, The Construction Project, is all about the integrative thinker's stance and the six key features they have in common:

1. Integrative thinkers believe that whatever models exist at the present moment do not represent reality; they are simply the best or only constructions yet made.
2. Integrative thinkers believe that conflicting models, styles, and approaches to problems are to be leveraged, not feared.
3. Integrative thinkers believe that better models exist that are not yet seen.
4. Integrative thinkers believe that not only does a better model exist, but that they are capable of bringing that better model from abstract hypothesis to concrete reality.
5. Integrative thinkers are comfortable wading into complexity to ferret out a new and better model, confident they will emerge on the other side with the resolution they seek.
6. Integrative thinkers give themselves the time to create a better model.

In my opinion, these six key features could really be condensed into fewer points but it's still useful as it is.

Martin goes on to describe three stances about the world (first three) and three about the self (last three) that he believes are the foundation of a personal knowledge system that will lead to integrative thinking:

1. Existing models do not represent reality, they are our constructions.
2. Opposing models are to be leveraged, not forced.
3. Existing models are not perfect; better models exist that are not yet seen.
4. I am capable of finding a better model.
5. I can wade into and get through the necessary complexity.
6. I give myself the time to create a better model.

Strangely, Martin uses the movie Crash to illustrate a need for integrative thinking. But what I found most interesting from this chapter was that Bruce Mau, one of Martin's integrative thinkers, meditates when faced with complex problems -- it's not everyday that a business book advocates meditation!

Chapter Seven, A Leap of the Mind, breaks down the tools required for integrative thinking as generative or modal reasoning (as opposed to declarative reasoning), causal modeling, and assertive inquiry. The aspects of "multidirectional feedback loops" are also discussed. And Martin's use of Taddy Belcher's successful creation of CIDA City Campus as a model of integrative thinking is both educational and inspirational.

Finally Chapter Eight, A Wealth of Experience, concludes the book by detailing A G Lafley's experiences starting from the Navy Exchange to Harvard Business School and finally to Procter and Gamble. The key experiences an integrative thinker strives for are ones that deepen mastery and nurture originality.

You know, having written my thoughts on each of these chapters, I feel like I've learned more from this book than I initially realized. I love when that happens!

Click here to view an excerpt of this book.

If you'd like to learn more, click here to listen to a podcast by Roger Martin about this book, courtesy of businessweek.com or click here to view the whole January 2008 Special Report on the book.

Enjoy!

The Definitive Book of Body Language - Book in Action

I recently read The Definitive Book of Body Language: Why What People Say Is Very Different from What They Think or Feel by Barbara Pease & Allan Pease.

So when I went out over Memorial Day weekend, I had an exceptionally great time people watching and seeing nonverbal communication in action.

I noticed so many of the "courtship displays and attraction signals" featured in the book, such as women displaying their wrists, tossing their hair, and sitting in certain ways.

And for once I paid attention to how makeup and glasses really do affect people's perceptions of women.

Definitely consider picking up The Definitive Book of Body Language; I guarantee it'll make you think differently about all sorts of social situations!

Looking forward to more people watching this weekend. :)

The Definitive Book of Body Language

I've finished The Definitive Book of Body Language: Why What People Say Is Very Different from What They Think or Feel by Barbara Pease & Allan Pease and as I mentioned yesterday, the second half of the book is far better than the first half!

Chapter Thirteen, The Secret Signals of Cigarettes, Glasses, and Makeup, has lots of useful tips and Chapter Fourteen, How the Body Points to Where the Mind Wants to Go, also had a few interesting thoughts on what feet pointing means in groups.

Chapter Fifteen, Courtship Displays and Attraction Signals, is a must read for any person out on the dating scene. Men will find is useful in decoding the nonverbal signals of women they are interested in, and women will find it interesting and perhaps learn new signals to test out!

I was surprised to learn that men are universally split into three fairly even groups with regards to favorite female body part: boobs, butts, and legs. And women are evenly split with regards to favorite male body part: legs, butts, and chests/arms.

Extra long legs are a "powerful nonverbal signal telling males she is sexually maturing and is now capable of childbearing." Men prefer women with shapely, thicker legs over those with thinner, spindly legs, because the additional fat in the legs is an indicator of better lactation.

Chapter Sixteen, Ownership, Territory, and Height Signals, provides practical advice for getting out of a ticket when you get pulled over and some interesting facts. Polish anthropologist Dr. Boguslaw Pawlowski found that in an ideal relationship trust, money, and respect are less important than the height difference ratio of 1 to 1.09, with 1.09 being the ideal ratio.

Chapter Seventeen, Seating Arrangements - Where to Sit and Why, also provides practical advice for business, classroom, and social situations. It might come in handy for those working on wedding seating charts!

Also interesting was the idea that "open" families have round dining room tables, "closed" families select square dining room tables, and "authoritative" types select rectangular tables.

If you're interviewing for a job, interviewing candidates for an open position, or even considering rearranging your office, you'll find Chapter Eighteen, Interviews, Power Plays, and Office Politics, full of useful information.

Chapter Nineteen, Putting It All Together, features a quiz that tests how much you've learned from the book and summarizes the key points for making a positive body-language impression on others:

Face: Have an animated face and make smiling a part of your regular repertoire. Make sure you flash your teeth.

Gestures: Be expressive but don't overdo it. Keep your fingers closed when you gesture, your hands below chin level, and avoid arm or feet crossing.

Head Movement: Use Triple Nods when talking and Head Tilt when listening. Keep your chin up.

Eye Contact: Give the amount of eye contact that makes everyone feel comfortable. Unless looking at others is a cultural no-no, lookers gain more credibility than nonlookers.

Posture: Lean forward when listening, stand straight when speaking.

Territory: Stand as close as you feel comfortable. If the other person moves back, don't step forward again.

Mirror: Subtly mirror the body language of others.

I'd recommend picking up The Definitive Book of Body Language and reading it not cover to cover but reading the table of contents and reading just the sections of interest to you!

The Definitive Book of Body Language - Glasses & Makeup

I've been reading The Definitive Book of Body Language: Why What People Say Is Very Different from What They Think or Feel by Barbara Pease & Allan Pease and I found the first ten or so chapters pretty dull and unoriginal.

I'd heard about mirroring before and that crossed arms or legs meant closed off or unreceptive and a lot of the other things in the first half of The Definitive Book of Body Language.

But Chapter Thirteen, The Secret Signals of Cigarettes, Glasses, and Makeup, was full of new information! I don't smoke but I do wear glasses (or contact lenses).

I'd always felt like I was treated differently when I wear glasses instead of contacts and on the rare occasions I wear makeup (as opposed to my everyday lip gloss look). And it was reassuring to learn that people perceive people in glasses as "being more studious and intelligent, particularly in the early stages of a meeting" provided that they are not "oversized lenses, Elton-John-style colored frames, or designer glasses with distracting initials on the frame. Wearing glasses that are one size larger than the face can make younger people look older, more studious, and more authoritative." And the heavier the frame on the glasses, the more they are perceived as studious, intelligent, conservative, educated, and sincere! "Frameless, small, or spindly frames convey a powerless image and say that you are more interested in fashion than business."

Wearing sunglasses on your head, a style I'm often seen sporting, gives "the wearer the appearance that they have two huge eyes with dilated pupils on top of their heads" which gives them a relaxed, youthful, and "cool" appearance.

And the combination of glasses and makeup?

Women wearing both glasses and makeup are described as confident, intelligent, sophisticated, and outgoing. Some women (but never men) find women wearing glasses and makeup to be confident and cold, arrogant, and/or conceited (indicating that they may have seen them as possible competition).

And women who wear makeup without glasses appear to listeners as having good appearance and personal presentation but low listening and other personal skills.

Makeup gives women a more intelligent, confident, and sexier image and the combination of glasses and makeup in business has the most positive and memorable impact on observers.

And lipstick? Not surprisingly, women with reduced lipstick in muted or pastel colors are seen as more career-oriented and businesslike, while women wearing red lipstick are seen as more interested in themselves and men's attention. What I wasn't expecting is that women with no lipstick are seen as more serious about work than men but lacking in personal skills!

Guess I'll start wearing glasses and makeup for those power meetings.

What Got You Here Won’t Get You There: Transactional Flaws

Yesterday, I wrote about What Got You Here Won’t Get You There: Discover the 20 Workplace Habits You Need to Break by Marshall Goldsmith and said:

I found the list of “transactional flaws” so interesting that I really want to share it with you all, but I’d be spoiling the book for you if I did that and this book is fantastic and really worth reading. I’d hate to rob you of that experience.

Well, I've had so many request to share them that I realized the least I could do is point you to the URL on author's website where you can find the list of transactional flaws. So here ya go, click here to read Marshall Goldsmith's list of 20 transactional flaws that cause interpersonal issues and may prevent us from reaching our personal and professional goals.

I don't know about you but I am absolutely guilty of 60% of these flaws at least some of the time.

Number 17, failing to express gratitude, Number 10, failing to give proper recognition, Number 11, claiming credit that we don't deserve, are three of the flaws that I very rarely commit. I go out of my way to thank people and recognize their efforts, both privately and publicly, and I enjoy giving credit where it's due. In fact, I probably give too much credit in an effort to prevent committing this flaw.

Similarly, Number 18, punishing the messenger, Number 15, refusing to express regret, Number 12, making excuses, and Number 13, clinging to the past, and are flaws I'd like to believe that I seldom commit. I try my best not to blame people and I'd like to believe that I take full responsibility -- publicly if necessary -- for my actions (and do so without deflecting blame to the past), though I'm sure I could improve.

Number 1, winning too much, I don't do too often either. I'm pretty much anti-competitive so while I like to do well compared to my own internal standards, I generally don't feel a need to "win." Same goes for Number 19, passing the buck, and Number 20, an excessive need to be "me." I try to work on my faults, and realize that I'm still a long way from fixing them all, but I certainly try not to claim that my faults are just part of who I am, take it or leave it. is the same.

Number 4, making destructive comments, and Number 8, negativity, or “let me explain why that won’t work," I'd like to believe are not part of my modus operandi though I would guess that unfortunately my desire to find the truth can sometimes come off as a "let me explain why that won't work" kind of attitude.

Number 9, withholding information, and Number 16, not listening, just sound totally ludicrous to me! I believe that people have these flaws but would like to believe that I am not among those people.

Number 2, adding too much value, I commit frequently. I try to refrain from providing advice unless I am asked, but when I am asked I probably give more advice than is necessary. Number 5, starting with “no” “but,” or “however,” I absolutely do all too frequently. I hadn't realized until reading this book how destructive this can be, even with the best of intentions.

Number 6, telling the world how smart we are, I probably do commit more frequently than I should. I can think of several occasions when I've said something and then immediately realized how arrogant I probably sounded.

Number 14, playing favorites, and Number 3, passing judgment, I want to believe I don't commit but I know that I do. No matter how "fair" we all like to think we are, we subconsciously if not consciously continually pass judgments play favorites. I absolutely need to work on these flaws.

Number 7, speaking when angry, I certainly do in personal situations though I would like to believe that I very rarely commit this flaw in professional situations. Still, I could stand to work on this.

Authentic Happiness in Marriage

Yesterday, I read Parts I (Positive Emotion) & II (Strengths & Virtue) of Martin E. P. Seligman's Authentic Happiness: Using the New Positive Psychology to Realize Your Potential for Lasting Fulfillment and I've just finished the chapter on Love in Part III (In the Mansions of Life).

In this chapter, Seligman shares his ideas on marriage. First, research shows that married people -- across the seventeen nations that psychologists have surveyed -- have the least depression (followed by never-married, divorced once, people co-habitating, and people divorced twice).

In other words, marriage -- stable, pair-bonding, romantic love -- is good for you! Why? Seligman says it is because marriage is the only arrangement that gives us all three kinds of love:

• "love of the people who give us comfort, acceptance, and help, who bolster our confidence and guide us." This is like a child's love of his/her parents.
• "people who depend on us for these provisions." This is like a parent's love for his/her child.
• "romantic love - the idealization of another, idealizing their strengths and virtues and downplaying their shortcomings."

In addition to these types of love, Authentic Happiness describes three styles of love:

• secure - people who have this style of love tend to have relatively enduring and satisfying relationships. They are comfortable expressing their emotions and tend not to suffer from depression and other psychological disorders. The secure style benefits care giving, sex-life, and coping with bad events.
• avoidant - people who have this style of love are less comfortable depending on others and opening up to others. These people tend to prefer their own autonomy -- oftentimes at the expense of their close relationships. Although they often have high self-confidence, they sometimes come across as hostile or competitive by others, and this often interferes with their close relationships.
• anxious - people who have this style of love tend to worry about whether their partners really love them and often fear rejection. Although they are comfortable expressing their emotions, preoccupied individuals often experience a lot of negative emotions, which can interfere with their relationships.

Seligman also recommends these books about marriage (though he thinks most books on marriage are focused on how to make a bad marriage tolerable instead of making a good marriage even better):

• Reconcilable Differences by Andrew Christensen and Neil Jacobsen
• The Relationship Cure: A 5 Step Guide to Strengthening Your Marriage, Family, and Friendships by John Gottman
• The Seven Principles for Making Marriage Work: A Practical Guide from the Country's Foremost Relationship Expert by John Gottman
• Fighting for Your Marriage: Positive Steps for Preventing Divorce and Preserving a Lasting Love, New and Revised by Howard Markman, Scott Stanley, and Susan Blumberg

John Gottman is the University of Washington in Seattle professor who's known for being able to predict divorce with over 90 percent accuracy by watching couples interact for twelve hours each day for an entire weekend in his "love lab" (a comfortable apartment with all the amenities of home plus two-way mirrors). The predictors of divorce are:

• A harsh startup in disagreement
• Criticism of partner, rather than complaints
• Displays of contempt
• Hair-trigger defensiveness
• Lack of validation (particularly stonewalling)
• Negative body language

In addition, Gottman accurately predicts which marriages will improve by simply devoting an extra five hours per week to their marriage:

• Partings - before these couples say goodbye each morning, they find out one thing that each is going to do that day (2 minutes per day, 5 days a week)
• Reunions - at the end of each workday, these couples have a low-stress reunion conversation (20 minutes per day, 5 days a week)
• Affection - touching, grabbing, holding, and kissing, all laced with tenderness and forgiveness (5 minutes per day, 7 days a week)
• One weekly date - just the happy couple in a relaxed atmosphere, updating their love (2 hours once a week)
• Admiration and appreciation - every day, genuine affection and appreciation is given at least once (5 minutes per day, 7 days a week)

Other researchers have shown that optimism helps marriage. As Seligman states, "Satisfied couples see virtues in their partners that are not seen at all by their closest friends."

Back to reading...just three more chapters to go: Raising Children, Reprise and Summary, and Meaning and Purpose.